The EU Common Position on Arms Export Policies: Europeanising Transparency

Authors

  • Leonie Grünhage
  • Kristina Krauter
  • Magdalena Schmidt
  • Sebastian Zavelsberg

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.26481/marble.2013.v2.142

Abstract

In 2008, as a response to several scandals in arms exports, the EU Member States adopted a legally binding Council Common Position on Arms Exports in order to avoid the export of armaments to crisis regions. The adoption succeeded a Code of Conduct from 1998, the first detailed agreement in the field of arms deliveries between EU governments, and pushed for further harmonisation in the field of European arms export policies. The Member States emphasize the importance of such efforts and push for the adoption of common rules on the European level. However, it remains to be seen whether the implementation on the national level is successful. Another important aspect in the domain of arms exports is transparency both in the licensing process and the assessment of licensing decisions. To increase this transparency on a European and national level, harmonisation efforts were introduced through the Code of Conduct and Common Position. Although the Member States are legally obliged to report to the EU on their arms transfers since 2008, the implementation of the criteria set out in the EU Common Position remains in the hands of Member States. This raises the question, which impact the development of the EU Common Position has had domestically. Therefore, this chapter sets out to analyse to what extent the Common Position has harmonized the national policies in the field of arms export and has made them more transparent to the wider public and different public actors. Moreover, it will be investigated how different Member States are influencing the development of the EU Code of Conduct.

References

ADS (2012). Priorities for Government. Retrieved May 22, 2012, from http://www.adsgroup.org.uk/pages/41811770.asp

BAFA, (2012). Das BAFA. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.bafa.de/bafa/de/ das_bafa/index.html

Bauer, S. (2002). “Mehr Licht!” Transparent und Parlamentarische Kontrolle von Rüstungsexporten im Internationalen Vergleich. Bündnis-90/Die Grünen. Berlin: 2002.

Bauer, S. (2003). The EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports – Enhancing the accountability of arms export policies? European Security, 12, 129-147.

BBC (1999). UK arms exports under scrutiny. Retrieved May 21, 2012 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/503495.stm

BIS (2010). History of Export Controls. Retrieved May 14, 2012, from http://www.bis.gov.uk/policies/export-control-organisation/eco-policy- consultations/history-export-controls

BIS (2012). Export control organisation. Retrieved May 14, 2012, from http://www.bis.gov.uk/policies/export-control-organisation.

Bundestag, (2011). Parlamentsbeteiligung bei Rüstungsexporten Strittig. Retrieved May 28, 2012, from http://www.bundestag.de/dokumente/textarchiv/2011/36094481_kw41_de_ ruestung/index.html

Business Link (2011a). Current UK strategic control legislation. Retrieved May 14, 2012, from http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/layer?r.l1=1079717544&r.l2=1084228483&r.s=tl&topicId=1084474434

Business Link (2011b). Overview of export control legislation. Retrieved May 14, 2012, from http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/layer?r.l1=1079717544&r.l2=1084228483&r.s=tl&topicId=1084471558

Bündnis-90/Die Grünen, Keul, K, (2011). Rüstungsexportbericht Früher Vorlegen.Retrieved May 17, 2012, fromhttp://katjakeul.de/bundestag/ruestungsexporte/?no_cache =1&expand=381116&displayNon=1&cHash=93d2062d91fe8ce60abbde8763db731e

Börzel, T.A. (2002). Pace-Setting, Foot-Dragging, and Fence-Sitting: Member State Responses to Europeanization. Journal for Common Market Studies, 40, 193-214.

Bromley, M. (2007). The Europeanisation of Arms Export Policy in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Poland. European Security, 16, 203-224.

Bromley, M. (2008). The Impact on Domestic Policy of the EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports. The Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Spain. SIPRI Policy Paper No.21, Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

Bromley, M. (2011a). The EU common position on arms exports and national export control policies. Flemish Peace Institute Report. Retrieved 3 June, 2012, from http://www.vlaamsvredesinstituut.eu/get_pdf.php?ID=292&lang=EN

Bromley, M. (2011b). The EU common position on arms exports and national export control policies. In Bailey, A. JK. & Depauw, S. (Eds.), The EU defence market: balancing effectiveness with responsibility. Conference Report. (pp.41-48). Brussels: Flemish Peace Institute.

Bromley, M. (2012). The Review of the EU Common Position on Arms Exports: Prospects for Strengthened Controls. EU Non-Proliferation Consortium no. 7.

CAAT (2011). About UKTI. Retrieved May 23, 2012 from http://www.caat.org.uk/issues/ ukti/aboutukti.php

Cairns, E. (2012). Stay on Target – Will the UK fight the battle for tough arms controls? Control Arms UK Policy Papers. London: Oxfam.

CDU/CSU (1968). Berliner Programm 1968. Retrieved May 17, 2012, from http://www.grundsatzprogramm.cdu.de/page/30.htm

CDU/CSU (1994). Grundsatzprogramm “Freiheit und Verantwortung”.. Retrieved May 17, 2012, from http://www.grundsatzprogramm.cdu.de/page/30.htm

CDU/CSU, (2012). Rüstungsexporte. Retrieved May 22, 2012, from http://www.cducsu.de/Titel__ruestungsexporte_%28spd%29/TabID__1/SubTabID__2/InhaltTypID__12/ InhaltID__3671/inhalte.aspx

Clean Up Britain’s Exports (2012). Retrieved May 23, 2012 from http://cleanupexports.org.uk/ Coalition Programme (2010). The coalition: our programme for government. London: Cabinet Office.

Consolidated Criteria (2000). Consolidated EU and national Arms Export Licensing Criteria. As reprinted in the United Kingdom Strategic Export Controls Annual Report 2010.London: The Stationary Office.

Conservatives (2012a). International Development. Retrieved May 19, 2012, from http://www.conservatives.com/Policy/Where_we_stand/International_Development.aspx

Conservatives (2012b). Defence. Retrieved, May 19, 2012, from http://www.conservatives.com/Policy/Where_we_stand/Defence.aspx

Cooper, N. (2000). Arms exports, new labour and the pariah agenda. Contemporary Security Policy, 21, 54-77.

Council for Science and Technology (2012). Written Ministerial Evidence given February 7, 2012 by the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (Vince Cable). Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201212/cmhansrd/ cm120207/wmstext/120207m0001.htm

Council of the European Union. (2008). Council Common Position of 8 December 2008 defining common rules governing control of exports of military technology and equipment.(2008/944/CFSP). Brussels: Council of the European Union.

Council of the European Union (2009). User’s Guide to Council Common Position 2008/944/CFSP Defining Common Rules Governing the Control of Exports Of Military Technology and Equipment. (9241/09). Brussels: Council of the European Union.

Davis, I. (2002). The Regulation of Arms and Dual-Use Exports: Germany, Sweden and the UK. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

De Maizière T., (2011). De Maizière verteidigt möglichen Panzerdeal mit Saudi-Arabien Der Verteidigungsminister weist Kritik an der geplanten Panzerlieferung nach Saudi- Arabien zurück. Stattdessen betont er die stabilisierende Rolle des autoritären Regimes.Retrieved May 7, 2012, from http://www.zeit.de/politik/deutschland/2011-07/panzerdealsaudi- arabiea

Defence Management (2012). UK arms export data must be made more accessible.Retrieved May 25, 2012 from http://www.defencemanagement.com/feature_story.asp?id=18828

DIE LINKE, (2011). Parteiprogramm der Partei DIE LINKE 2011. Retrieved May 3, 2012, from http://www.die-linke.de/partei/dokumente/programmderparteidielinke/

Die Zeit, (2010). Die Grünen so Beliebt wie Nie. Retrieved May 23, 2012, from http://www.zeit.de/politik/deutschland/2010-10/deutschlandtrend-rot-gruen

ECGD (2008). Annual Review and Resource Accounts 2007-08. Retrieved May 20, 2012 from http://www.ukexportfinance.gov.uk/assets/ecgd/files/publications/plans-and-reports/ ann-reps/annual_review_2007-08.pdf

ECGD (2011). Annual Reports and Accounts 2010-11. Retrieved May 20, 2012 from http:// www.ukexportfinance.gov.uk/assets/ecgd/files/publications/plans-and-reports/annreps/ ecgd-annual-report-and-accounts-2010-11.pdf

FDP, (2009). Die Mitte Stärken! Deutschlandprogramm 2009. Retrieved May 19, 2012, from http://www.deutschlandprogramm.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-1213/_nr-4/i.html

German Annual Report 1999 (1999). Report of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment covering the Year 1999 (1999 Military Equipment Export Report). Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/national_reports/ germany/germany_99_eng

German Annual Report 2000 (2000). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2000. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_00_eng

German Annual Report 2001 (2001). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2001. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_01_eng

German Annual Report 2002 (2002). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2002. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_02_eng

German Annual Report 2003 (2003). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2003. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/Germany_03_english

German Annual Report 2004 (2004). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2004. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany-national-reports

German Annual Report 2005 (2005). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2005. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_05

German Annual Report 2006 (2006). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2006. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_06

German Annual Report 2007 (2007). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_07_eng.pdf

German Annual Report 2008 (2008). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2008. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germany_08_eng.pdf

German Annual Report 2009 (2009). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2009. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/FRG_09

German Annual Report 2010 (2010). Report by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on Its Policy on Exports of Conventional Military Equipment in 2010. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/ national_reports/germany/germny-2010.pdf

Government Response (2007). Reports from the Defence, Foreign Affairs, International Development and Trade and Industry Committees session 2006-07: strategic export controls HMG’s annual report for 2005, quarterly reports for 2006, licensing policy and Parliamentary scrutiny response of the Secretaries of State for Defense, Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, International Development and Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. (CM 7260).London: The Stationary Office.

Government Response (2008). Reports from the Business and Enterprise, Defense, Foreign Affairs and International Development Committees session 2007-08: strategic export controls HMG’s annual report for 2006, quarterly reports for 2007, licensing policy and Parliamentary scrutiny responses of the Secretaries of State for Defence, Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, International Development and Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. (CM 7485). London: The Stationary Office.

Green Party (2010). Party Manifesto. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from http://www.greenparty.org.uk/assets/files/resources/Manifesto_web_file.pdf

Guardian (2007). Export department closure leaves defence firms out in the cold.Retrieved May 23, 2012 from http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2007/jul/26/1

Hagelin, B., Bromley, M., Hart, J., Kile, S.N., Lachowski, Z., Omitoogun, W., et al. (2006). Transparency in the arms life cycle. (pp. 245-267). In Sipri Yearbook 2006. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

Hohmann, H, (2011). Rüstungsexport Zwischen Restriktiv und Liberal. Export Manager.Retrieved May 23, 2012, from http://www.exportmanager-online.de/archiv/179/ ruestungsexport-zwischen-restriktiv-und-liberal Holm, K. (2006). Europeanising Export Controls: The Impact of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports in Belgium, Germany and Italy. European Security, 15, 213-234.

Holtom, P., Bromley, M., Wezeman, P.D., Wezeman S.T. (2012). Trends in International Arms Transfers. Sipri Fact Sheet. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

ISP. (2012). ISPs Councils. Retrieved 10 May, 2012, from http://www.isp.se/sa/node.asp?node=1212

ISP Annual Report. (2010). ISP Annual Report. Retrieved 13 May, 2012, from http://www.isp.se/documents/_English/Publications/AR/ISP_AnnualReport2010.pdf

Labour (1997). Party Manifesto. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from http://www.labour-party.org.uk/manifestos/1997/1997-labour-manifesto.shtml

Labour (2010). Party Manifesto. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from http://www2.labour.org.uk/uploads/TheLabourPartyManifesto-2010.pdf

Liberal Democrats (2010a). Party Manifesto. Retrieved May 20, 2012, from http:// network.libdems.org.uk/manifesto2010/libdem_manifesto_2010.pdf

Liberal Democrats (2010b). Accountability to the Poor (International Development Policy Paper). Retrieved May 21, 2012 from http://www.libdems.org.uk/policy_motions_ detail.aspx?title=Accountability_to_the_Poor_%28International_Development_Policy_ Paper%29_-_carried&pPK=639e6786-7e11-4c81-a690-75b839b7ca1a

Lunn, J. (2012). UK arms export control policy. (SN/IA/2729). London: The Stationary Office.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2010). Export Controls. Retrieved 20 May, 2012, from http:// www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/11557 Opening Up Government (2012). Retrieved May 28, 2012 from http://data.gov.uk/ cabinet-office-summary-of-responses-to-making-open-data-real-consultation

Radaelli, C. (2004). Europeanisation of Defence Industry Policy?. European Integration Online Papers, 8(16).

Saferworld (2011). Building to last the UKs role in promoting stability overseas. Conservative Party Conference Briefing. London: Saferworld.

Saferworld, (2012). Country Comparison. Arms Transfer Reporting Database. Retrieved May 28, 2012, from http://www.saferworld.org.uk/eureporting/smartweb/main/countrycomparison

Schäfer, P. (2008). Die Deutsche Rüstungslobby. Retrieved May 15, 2012, from http:// www.friedenskreis-castrop-rauxel.de/downloads/ruestungslobby.pdf

Schmidt, V.A. (2002). Europeanization and the mechanics of economic policy adjustment. Journal of European Public Policy, 9, 894-912.

Scrutiny Report (2007). Strategic Export Controls: 2007 Review. London: The Stationary Office.

Scrutiny Report (2008). UK Strategic Export Controls Annual Report 2006, Quarterly Reports for 2007, licensing policy and review of export control legislation. London: The Stationary Office.

Scrutiny Report (2009). UK Strategic Export Controls Annual Report 2007,Quarterly Reports for 2008,licensing policy and review of export control legislation. London: The Stationary Office.

Scrutiny Report (2011). UK Strategic Export Controls Annual Report 2009, Quarterly Reports for 2010, licensing policy and review of export control legislation. London: The Stationary Office.

SIPRI, (2009). The SIPRI Top 100 arms-producing companies, 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/production/Top100/2009

SIPRI, 2011. National Report Data Base. Retrieved May 14, 2012, from http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/transfers/transparency/national_reports/ germany/germany-national-reports

SOFF. (n.d.). International Cooperation on Military Equipment. Retrieved 15 May, 2012, from http://www.soff.se/internationalcooperation.html

SPD, (1959). Godesberger Programm (1959). Retrieved May 25, 2012, from http://www.spd.de/Politik/grundsatzprogramm/

SPD, (1989). Berliner Programm. 1989. Retrieved May 25, 2012, from http://www.spd.de/ Politik/grundsatzprogramm/

SPD, (2007). Godesberger Programm (2007). Retrieved May 25, 2012, from http://www.spd.de/Politik/grundsatzprogramm/

Spiegel Online, (2011). Deutschland macht Rekordumsatz mit Rüstungsexport. Retrieved May 7, 2012, from http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/waffenhandel-deutschlandmacht- rekordumsatz-mit-ruestungsexport-a-800139.html

Süddeutsche, (2011). Rüstung: Exporte Verdoppelt Parlament ohne Kontrolle. Retrieved May 5, 2012, from http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/ruestung-exporte-verdoppeltdeutschland- schickt-waffen-in-alle-welt-1.6640-2

Swedish Annual Report 2000 (2000). Report on Sweden’s Export Control Policy and Exports of Military Equipment in 2000. (2000/01:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2001 (2001). Report on Sweden’s Export Control Policy and Exports of Military Equipment in 2001. (2001/02:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2002 (2002). Report on Sweden’s Export Control Policy and Exports of Military Equipment in 2002. (2002/03:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2003 (2003). Strategic export controls in 2003 – military equipment and Dual-Use goods. (2003/04:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2004 (2004). Sweden’s Export Control Policy in 2004 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2004/05:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2005 (2005). Strategic Export Controls in 2005 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2005/06:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2006 (2006). Strategic Export Controls in 2006 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2006/07:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2007 (2007). Strategic Export Controls in 2007 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2007/08:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2008 (2008). Strategic Export Controls in 2008 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2008/09:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2009 (2009). Strategic Export Controls in 2009 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2009/10:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Annual Report 2010 (2010). Strategic Export Controls in 2010 – Military Equipment and Dual-Use Goods. (2010/11:114). Stockholm: Swedish Government.

Swedish Council Presidency. (n.d.). Outcomes of the Swedish EU Presidency. Retrieved 28 May, 2012, from http://www.se2009.eu/en/meetings_news/2009/12/16/outcomes_of_ the_swedish_eu_presidency.html

Szandar, A. (2008). Die Rüstungslobby. Spiegel Online. Retrieved May 28, 2012 from http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/spiegelspecialgeschichte/d-58508514.html

Telegraph (2011). What is the Defence and Security Organisation?. Retrieved May 23, 2012 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/defence/8245764/ What-is- the-Defence-and-Security-Organisation.html

UK Annual Report (1999). Strategic Export Controls. Foreign & Commonwealth Office: London.

UK Annual Report (2002). Strategic Export Controls. Foreign & Commonwealth Office: London.

UK Annual Report (2010). Strategic Export Controls. Foreign & Commonwealth Office: London.

UK Presidency (2008). Priorities for the UK Presidency of the EU 2005. Retrieved May 29, 2012 from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100202100434/http://www.eu2005.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1107293 521089

Van Aken J., 2012. Rüstungsexporte und das “C” im Parteinamen der CDU und CSU.Retrieved May 10, 2012, from http://bundes.blog.de/2011/06/09/jan-van-aken-linkeruestungsexporte- c-parteinamen-cdu-csu-11312077/

Waffenexporte, (2011a). Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Retrieved May 30, 2012, from http://www.waffenexporte.org/category/organisationen-ngo/

Waffenexporte, (2011b). Gesetzte- Dokumente. Retrieved May 30, 2012, from http://www.waffenexporte.org/category/gesetze-normen/

Downloads

Published

2013-07-01